Device and method for attenuating an immune response

ABSTRACT

Stimulation of one or more neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, including the splenic nerve, to attenuate an immune response, including an inflammatory immune response, is discussed. Devices and systems to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system to attenuate an immune response are also discussed. Devices discussed include pulse generators and drug pumps. Systems are described as optionally having one or more sensors and operator instructions. In specific examples, stimulation of the splenic nerve of pigs with a pulse generator is shown to be safe and effective in attenuating a lipopolysaccharide-induced immune response.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.60/507,855, filed Oct. 1, 2003, which provisional application is herebyincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to medical devices and methods for modulatingneurons and modulating an immune response.

BACKGROUND

The use of electrical stimulation to attenuate an immune response hasonly recently been described and has been limited to stimulation of aparasympathetic nerve. U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,713 (Tracey) demonstratedthat stimulation of the parasympathetic vagus nerve prior to bacterialchallenge resulted in a weakened systemic inflammatory response and wasassociated with greater survivability.

While intriguing, stimulation of the vagus nerve to attenuate an immuneresponse presents several concerns. Because the vagus nerve is comprisedpredominantly of afferent fibers, stimulation of the vagus nerve canproduce undesired, non-specific CNS effects. While U.S. Pat. No.6,610,713 discusses selective stimulation of the efferent vagus,selective efferent stimulation will be difficult to achieve in apredominantly afferent nerve such as the vagus. Further, the vagus nerveis a “wandering” nerve that innervates several tissues in addition tothe spleen, including the heart, liver and gastrointestinal tract.Accordingly, stimulation of the vagus nerve to attenuate an immuneresponse may result in many undesired and non-specific effects.

Further, due to the complex mechanisms underlying control of an immuneresponse, stimulation of the vagus nerve may not produce a complete oreffective attenuation of a systemic inflammatory response. U.S. Pat. No.6,610,713 suggested that the weakened systemic inflammatory responsefollowing vagus nerve stimulation was due to inhibition ofpro-inflammatory cytokines through a nicotinic cholinergicreceptor-mediated response. However, the parasympathetic cholinergicaspect of regulation of an inflammatory response is only one aspect ofsuch regulation. For example, the sympathetic noradrenergic nervoussystem may also play a role in regulating an inflammatory immuneresponse.

Like the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous systeminnervates the spleen, which is a major lymphoid organ. The efferentfibers of the sympathetic splenic nerve include noradrenergic neurons.Some main targets of noradrenergic innervation of the spleen includeimmature and mature immune cells, such as T lymphocytes, macrophages,mast cells, and plasma cells. In a normal healthy individual, the immunecells maintain a homeostasis with regard to the various factors releasedby the immune cells. Dysfunction of these cell types can lead toincreased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines resulting ininflammation and an excessive immune response. Similarly, dysfunction inthese cell types can lead to a suppressed immune response such as thatobserved in immunocompromised patients.

Noradrenergic agonists appear to play a role in the regulation of suchcell-types. For example, norepinephrine and b-adrenergic agonists havebeen shown to be involved in the elimination of bacteria and may act asendogenous regulators of cytokine production in sepsis. In addition,enhanced norepinephrine levels and b-adrenergic receptor activation candecrease pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, increase anti-inflammatorycytokine levels, and alter immune effector functions during bacterialinfection.

The use of electrical stimulation of a nerve or tissue associated withthe sympathetic nervous system to control an immune response in vivo hasnot previously been described. However, as presented herein, stimulationof the sympathetic nervous system, particularly the splenic nerve, thefibers of which are predominantly efferent, may serve to attenuate aninflammatory immune response while providing less potentially undesiredeffects than would stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system,particularly the vagus nerve. Furthermore, inhibition of the sympatheticnervous system may be used to strengthen an immune response when theendogenous immune response is not sufficient. Taken as a whole, varyingthe output of the sympathetic nervous system can serve to modulate animmune response for a desired effect thereby allowing for fineadjustments.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An embodiment of the invention provides a system for attenuating aninflammatory immune response. The system includes a device capable ofstimulating a sympathetic nervous system of a subject. In an embodiment,the system includes (a) a pulse generator adapted for stimulation of thesympathetic nervous system and (b) one or more leads connected to thepulse generator and adapted to being positioned to apply a stimulus tothe sympathetic nervous system. In an embodiment, the one or more leadsare adapted to being positioned to apply a stimulus to the splenicnerve. The system may also include operator instructions for how tooperate the device and/or system. For example, the system may includeoperator instructions indicating that the device or system may be usedfor purposes of stimulating a neuron associated with the sympatheticnervous system to attenuate an immune response, instructions regardingparameters for setting a pulse generator to stimulate the sympatheticnervous system, instructions for how to position a lead to stimulate thesympathetic nervous system, etc. The system may also include a sensor.The senor may be coupled to a stimulator to adjust one or morestimulation parameter. The sensor may be capable of detecting adysfunctional immune or sickness response, detecting whether a neuronhas been stimulated or whether an immune response has been attenuated orenhanced, and the like.

In an embodiment, the invention provides a method for attenuating animmune response through stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.The immune response may be an inflammatory immune response. Thesympathetic nervous system can be stimulated electrically with, forexample, a pulse generator. In an embodiment, stimulation of thesympathetic nervous system includes stimulation of the splenic nerve.

In an embodiment, the invention provides a method for enhancing animmune response through modulation of the sympathetic nervous system.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for modulating animmune response through the combined stimulation of the parasympatheticand sympathetic nervous systems. The immune response may be aninflammatory immune response or an immunosuppressive response. Both theparasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems may be stimulatedelectrically with, for example, a pulse generator. In an embodiment,stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system may includestimulation of the vagus nerve. In an embodiment, stimulation of thesympathetic nervous system may include stimulation of the splenic nerve.The stimulation may be delivered at the same time or at alternatingtimes to allow for finer control of an immune response.

In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a computer-readablemedium comprising program instructions. The program instructions cause aprogrammable processor to quantify one or more conditions of a subjectto establish a health state of the subject, the one or more conditionbeing associated with an immune response; instruct a medical device toprovide a stimulatory signal having stimulation parameters to a neuron;determine whether the health state of the subject improved based onchanges in one or more of the one or more conditions; and modify thestimulation parameters based the determination of whether the healthstate of the subject improved. A medical device may comprise thecomputer-readable medium.

The invention can provide a number of advantages. For example, bystimulating the sympathetic nervous system, which innervates all primaryand secondary lymphoid organs, the invention provides for greatflexibility for controlling an inflammatory immune response. Bystimulating one or more sympathetic nerves that innervate one or morelymphoid organs, an inflammatory immune response can be attenuated atone or more levels. In addition, the invention provides for greaterspecificity with reduced potential undesired, non-specific effects. Forexample, stimulating the splenic nerve, which is comprised primarily ofefferent fibers, can attenuate an immune response while minimizingdirect CNS effects due to the stimulation. Other advantages will also beevident based on the disclosure herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic illustration of stimulation of a sympatheticnervous system attenuating an immune response;

FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic illustration of a sympathetic nervous system;

FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic illustration of stimulation of a sympatheticnervous system producing sympathetic neurotransmitters attenuating animmune response;

FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic illustration of a device stimulating asympathetic nervous system attenuating an immune response;

FIGS. 5A and 5B are diagrammatic illustrations of an external system(5A) and an implantable system (5B) capable of stimulating a sympatheticnervous system;

FIGS. 6A-6C are diagrammatic illustrations of (A) a suitable arrangementfor implanting one embodiment of a electrical stimulation system of thepresent invention; (B) components of one embodiment of an electricstimulation system of the present invention; and (C) an pulse generatorand associated medical electrical leads according to one embodiment ofthe present invention;

FIGS. 7A-7F are diagrammatic illustrations of various embodiments ofmedical electrical leads suitable for use in various embodiments of asystem or method of the present invention;

FIG. 8 is diagrammatic illustration of a block diagram of one embodimentof the present invention;

FIG. 9 is a diagrammatic illustration of a neurostimulatory deviceadapted to stimulate a splenic nerve according to an embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 10 is a drug pump system that may be used to stimulate asympathetic nervous system according to an embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 11 is a flow chart illustrating how stimulation of a sympatheticnervous system may be modified according to an embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 12 is diagrammatic illustration of an embodiment of the inventionincluding a sensor;

FIG. 13A-13C are block diagrams of (A) one embodiment of an open-loopstimulation system of the present invention; (B) one closed-loopembodiment of a stimulation system of the present invention; and (C)another embodiment of a closed loop electric stimulation system of thepresent invention;

FIG. 14 is a schematic block diagram of a microprocessor and relatedcircuitry for utilizing a sensor to control stimulation administrationto a sympathetic nervous system according to an embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 15 is a diagrammatic illustration of a system according to anembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 16 is a photograph of the cuff electrode used to stimulate thesplenic nerve in one embodiment;

FIG. 17 is a photograph showing A) Simple surgical approach-lateralflank incision, cuff electrode was attached in the vicinity of scissortips. B) Tissue reflected upon necropsy to show electrode placement. C)Higher magnification of B, to demonstrade the branches of nerve andartery within cuff electrode. D) Histology of tissue under the cuffelectrode after stimulation of various frequencies (1-120 Hz);

FIG. 18 is a graph demonstrating the effects of electrical stimulationof the splenic nerve on LPS-induced mean arterial blood pressure (MABP);

FIGS. 19A-C are graphs demonstrating the effects of electricalstimulation of the splenic nerve on LPS-induced pro inflammatorycytokine production; and

FIG. 20 is a graph demonstrating the effect of electrical stimulation ofthe splenic nerve on the LPS-induced reduction in white blood cell (WBC)count.

The drawings are not necessarily to scale. Like numbers refer to likeparts or steps throughout the drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following descriptions, reference is made to the accompanyingdrawings that form a part hereof, and in which are shown by way ofillustration several specific embodiments of the invention. It is to beunderstood that other embodiments of the present invention arecontemplated and may be made without departing from the scope or spiritof the present invention. The following detailed description, therefore,is not to be taken in a limiting sense.

Definitions

All scientific and technical terms used in this application havemeanings commonly used in the art unless otherwise specified. Thedefinitions provided herein are to facilitate understanding of certainterms used frequently herein and are not meant to limit the scope of thepresent disclosure.

As used herein, “subject” means a living being having an autonomicnervous system. “Subject” includes mammals such as mice, rats, pigs,cats, dogs, horses, non-human primates and humans. “Autonomic nervoussystem” collectively refers to the sympathetic and parasympatheticnervous system.

As used herein, “mediator” of an immune response means a molecule thataffects an immune response in a subject and includes proinflammatory andanti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and their respectivereceptors, as well as signal transduction molecules involved intransmitting a signal associated with interaction of a cytokine orchemokine with a receptor.

Attenuation of an Immune Response

FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of the invention, where a sympatheticnervous system 10 of a subject is stimulated to attenuate an immuneresponse 20. It is understood that any means capable of stimulating asympathetic nervous system 10, or one or more neurons thereof, may beemployed. As used herein, “attenuating an immune response” 20 means toreduce the ability of a subject to produce an immune response 20, reducethe ability of a subject to produce mediators of an immune response 20,increase the ability of a subject to produce an anti-immune response,and/or increase the ability of a subject to produce mediators of ananti-immune response. Attenuation of an immune response 20 may bedetected by measuring a reduction in a deleterious characteristicassociated with an immune response 20, a reduction in a quantifiedsymptom of a deleterious characteristic, disease, and/or disorderassociated with an immune response 20, a reduction in the level of amediator of an immune response 20, an increase in the level of amediator of an anti-immune response, and the like, or a combinationthereof.

In an embodiment, the immune response 20 may be an inflammatory immuneresponse 20. An inflammatory immune response 20 can be mediated by aninflammatory cytokine cascade and can be alleviated by ananti-inflammatory cytokine cascade. Attenuation of an inflammatoryimmune response 20 may be detected by measuring a decrease in one ormore proinflammatory cytokines. Non-limiting examples of proinflammatorycytokines include tumor necrosis factor (TNF; also known as TNFα orcachectin), interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-2; IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15,IL-18, interferon γ (IFN-γ); platelet-activating factor (PAF),thromboxane; soluble adhesion molecules; vasoactive neuropeptides;phospholipase A2; plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1); free radicalgeneration; neopterin; CD14; prostacyclin; neutrophil elastase; proteinkinase; monocyte chemotactic proteins 1 and 2 (MCP-1, MCP-2); macrophagemigration inhibitory factor (MIF), high mobility group box protein 1(HMGB-1), and other known factors. Attenuation of an inflammatory immuneresponse may also be detected by measuring an increase in one or moreanti-inflammatory cytokines. Non-limiting examples of anti-inflammatorycytokines include IL-4, IL-10, IL-17, IL-13, IL-1 alpha, and TNFalphareceptor. It will be recognized that some of proinflammatory cytokinesmay act as anti-inflammatory cytokines in certain circumstances, andvice-versa. Such cytokines are typically referred to as plieotropiccytokines. Attenuation of an inflammatory response may also be detectedby measuring changes (baseline versus during therapy delivery, a firstpoint in therapy versus a second point in therapy, etc.) in the presenceof other factors involved in an immune response. Non-limiting examplesof such other factors include TGF, PDGF, VEGF, EGF, FGF, I-CAM, nitricoxide, and other known factors. In addition, an attenuated immuneresponse may be detected by changes in chemokines, such as 6cKine andMIP3beta, and chemokine receptors, including CCR7 receptor. Further,attenuation of an immune response may be measured by changes in immunecell population (upregulated Langerhans cells, dendritic cells,lymphocytes), or immune cell surface co-stimulatory molecules (MajorHistocompatibility, CD80, CD86, CD28, CD40). Attenuation of aninflammatory response may also be detected by measuring changes in otherfactors involved in the inflammatory cascade, for example in the signaltransduction cascades including factors such as NFκ-B, Egr-1, Smads,toll-like receptors, and MAP kinases. Attenuation of an immune responsemay also be detected by a change in the presence of, or the clearanceof, an exogenous antigen believed to have caused an inflammatoryresponse, such as e.g. a bacteria, a virus, or a fungus. Further, celltypes involved in an immune response, such as Langerhans cells,dendritic cells, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes may be detected. Inaddition, cell surface molecules involved in an immune response, such asmajor histocompatibility complex (MHC), CD80, CD86, CD28, and CD40 maybe detected.

Attenuation of an inflammatory immune response 20 includes attenuationof a deleterious characteristic of a disorder and/or disease stateassociated with a heightened inflammatory immune response 20.Deleterious characteristics include inflammation and apoptosis.Disorders or disease states associated with an inflammatory immuneresponse 20 are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,713 and includedisorders characterized by both localized and systemic reactions,including, diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract and associatedtissues (such as appendicitis, peptic, gastric and duodenal ulcers,peritonitis, pancreatitis, ulcerative, pseudomembranous, acute andischemic colitis, inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulitis,epiglottitis, achalasia, cholangitis, coeliac disease, cholecystitis,hepatitis, Crohn's disease, enteritis, and Whipple's disease); systemicor local inflammatory diseases and conditions (such as asthma, allergy,anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease, organ ischemia, reperfusioninjury, organ necrosis, hay fever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxic shock,cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis, andsarcoidosis); diseases involving the urogential system and associatedtissues (such as septic abortion, epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitisand urethritis); diseases involving the respiratory system andassociated tissues (such as bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis, cysticfibrosis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, pneumonitis,pneumoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, alvealitis, bronchiolitis,pharyngitis, pleurisy, and sinusitis); diseases arising from infectionby various viruses (such as influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, HIV,hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and herpes), bacteria (such asdisseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever), fungi (such as candidiasis) andprotozoal and multicellular parasites (such as malaria, filariasis,amebiasis, and hydatid cysts); dermatological diseases and conditions ofthe skin (such as burns, dermatitis, dermatomyositis, sunburn, urticariawarts, and wheals); diseases involving the cardiovascular system andassociated tissues (such as vasulitis, angiitis, endocarditis,arteritis, atherosclerosis, thrombophlebitis, pericarditis, myocarditis,myocardial ischemia, congestive heart failure, periarteritis nodosa, andrheumatic fever); diseases involving the central or peripheral nervoussystem and associated tissues (such as Alzheimer's disease, meningitis,encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cerebral infarction, cerebralembolism, Guillame-Barre syndrome, neuritis, neuralgia, spinal cordinjury, paralysis, and uveitis); diseases of the bones, joints, musclesand connective tissues (such as the various arthritides and arthralgias,osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout, periodontal disease,rheumatoid arthritis, and synovitis); other autoimmune and inflammatorydisorders (such as myasthenia gravis, thryoiditis, systemic lupuserythematosus, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets's syndrome, allograftrejection, graft-versus-host disease, Type I diabetes, ankylosingspondylitis, Berger's disease, diabetes including Type I diabetes,ankylosing spondylitis, Berger's disease, and Retier's syndrome); aswell as various cancers, tumors and proliferative disorders (such asHodgkins disease), nosicomal infection; and, in any case theinflammatory or immune host response to any primary disease.

Other conditions associated with immune or inflammatory response includeinjury to nerves or other tissue and pain associated with nerve or othertissue. Injury may be due to a physical, chemical or mechanical trauma.Non-limiting examples of injury include acute trauma, burn, andwhiplash. Conditions associated with a particular organ such as eye orear may also include an immune or inflammatory response.

Any method for measuring the level of a cytokine or chemokine in asubject may be used to determine whether an inflammatory immune response20 has been attenuated. Several methods are known and includecommercially available kits. A cytokine or chemokine may be directlydetected. Alternatively, the presence or amount of a nucleic acid, suchas a polyribonucleotide, encoding a polypeptide described herein mayserve as a measure of the presence or amount of the polypeptide. Thus,it will be understood that detecting the presence or amount of apolypeptide will include detecting the presence or amount of apolynucleotide encoding the polypeptide.

Any method for measuring a deleterious characteristic, disorder and/ordisease state associated with a heightened inflammatory immune responsemay be used. Several methods are known and include determining the levelof inflammation in a subject, determining the extent of apoptosis in asubject, determining physiological changes characteristic of aparticular disease state, and determining a subject's white blood cellcount. Inflammation may be measured in vitro or in vivo by analysis ofinflammatory markers in the blood and fluorescence and histologicalevidence and physiological responses such as body temperature. Apoptosismay be measured by dye uptake and circulating levels of apoptosismarkers, and tissue biopsy. These and other known methods may be used tomeasure an inflammatory immune response.

Further, any symptom associated with a deleterious characteristic,disease, or disorder of an inflammatory immune response 20 may be usedto determine whether an inflammatory immune response 20 has beenattenuated. A symptom may be quantified either objectively orsubjectively. Non-limiting examples of objective measures includedecreased swelling, decreased flushing, changes in ECG, EKG, changes inmeasures of total health, changes in response to pain tests, anddecreased body temperature. Other objective measures of improvement indisorders or disease states associated with a heightened immune response20 are known and may be used to determine efficacy of the variousembodiments of the invention. Subjective measures, e.g., the subject'sperception of the one or more symptom of an inflammatory immune responsemay be quantified in any know manner. For example, the subject may ranktheir perceived severity of the symptom on base on a numerical scale.The scale can be from, 1 to 2, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5,from 1 to 10, etc.

Sympathetic Nervous System

FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of the invention, where a sympatheticnervous system 10 of a subject is stimulated to attenuate an immuneresponse 20. The invention provides, in various embodiments, devices andmethods for stimulating a sympathetic nervous system 10 of a subject toattenuate an immune response 20. Sympathetic nervous system 10 is usedherein in its broadest sense and includes stimulation of one or moreneurons associated with the sympathetic nervous system.

As shown in FIG. 2, neurons associated with the sympathetic nervoussystem 10 include projections in the spinal cord 145 that originate fromthe brain to inteneurons 777 or to preganglionic neurons 149 (notshown), inteneurons 777, preganglionic neurons 149 and postganglionicneurons 148. Projections a 145 from the brain 150 including brain stem,midbrain and forebrain to preganglionic sympathetic neurons 149 orinterneurons 777 (it will be recognized that one or more interneurons777 may be involved in relaying information from brain projections a 145to a preganglionic neuron 149) of the spinal cord 140 includeprojections a 145 from brain 150 areas such as the paraventricularnucleus of the hypothalamus, rostral ventrolateral medulla, ventromedialmedulla, and caudal raphe nucleus. In an embodiment of the invention,one or more of such brain 150 areas may be stimulated to attenuate animmune response 20 in a subject. The preganglionic cell bodies 148 ofthe sympathetic nerves and associated interneurons 777 generally residewithin the intermediolateral cell column of the lateral horn of thespinal cord 140 at C1-S5. In an embodiment of the invention, neurons insuch regions of the spinal cord 140 may be stimulated to attenuate animmune response 20. Generally, preganglionc cell bodies 148 sendprojections b 146 that exit the spinal cord 140 through the ventralroots to synapse with postganglioinic neurons 148 in ganglia 135.Examples of ganglia 135 include inferior mesenteric, superiormesenteric, celiac, submandibualr, otic, and pterygopalatine ganglia.Postganglionic nerves 148 send projections c 147 that typically followthe vasculature to innervate end organs 152. Postganglionic sympatheticneurons 148 can be stimulated directly by, for example, stimulating theganglia 135 or stimulating the projection c 147 of the neuron. Apostganglionic neuron 148 can be stimulated indirectly by, for examplestimulating a preganglionic neuron 149 that synapses with thepostganglionic neuron 148 or stimulating any of its higher origins.Further, stimulation of tissue of an end organ 152 may stimulate apostganglionic sympathetic neuron 148. Generally, stimulation of apostganglionic sympathetic neuron will increase the likelihood thatneurotransmitter 154 will be released from the nerve terminal of theneuron 148. However, it will be understood that neurotransmitter 154 mayalso be released nonsynaptically, at any point along the neuron cellbody or projections. The neurotransmitter 154 released from thepostganglionic neuron 148 may interact with one or more cells 156 of,within, or near the end organ 152. Non-limiting examples ofneurotransmitters 154 released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons148 include epinephrine, norepinephrine, substance P, neuropeptide Y,and dopamine.

From preganglionic cell bodies 148 residing in the spinal cord 140sympathetic projections b and c, 146 and 147, are sent to innervatevarious end organs 152. For example, connections arising fromsympathetic neurons residing at C1-C4 innervate eyes, lacrimal gland,parotid gland, and submandibular gland; C1-T4 innervate thymus andthyroid gland; T5-T9 innervate stomach, liver, gallbladded, bile ducts,pancreas, and adrenal glands; T10-T12 innervate adrenal glands andkidneys; T10-L2 innervate intestines; L1-L5 innervate distal colon;S2-S5 innervate bladder and genitalia.

As shown in FIG. 3, these and other sympathetic neurotransmitters 154may be involved in attenuating an immune response 20 in a subjectfollowing stimulation of one or more neuron associated with thesympathetic nervous system 10.

Accordingly, in various embodiments the invention provides systems andmethods to increase sympathetic neurotransmitter 154 output from asympathetic neuron by stimulating one or more sympathetic neuron. Theinvention also provides in various embodiments systems and methods forattenuating an immune response 20 by increasing the level of asympathetic neurotransmitter 154 in a subject. Furthermore, embodimentsof the invention provide systems and methods for enhancing an immunefunction.

Stimulation of Sympathetic Nervous System

The invention provides, in various embodiments, devices and methods forstimulating the sympathetic nervous system 10. As used herein,“stimulating the sympathetic nervous system 10” means to increase thelikelihood that one or more neurons associated with the sympatheticnervous system 10 will undergo an action potential. A sympathetic neuroncan be stimulated by applying a neurostimulatory signal to the neuron.Thus, any stimulation signal that increases the likelihood that a neuronwill undergo an action potential is considered neurostimulatoryaccording to various embodiments of the invention. In some embodiments,the neurostimulatory signal is sufficient to induce the neuron toundergo an action potential. A stimulatory signal may be applied to asympathetic neuron or a population of neurons within a given region ofthe sympathetic nervous system 10, anywhere along the sympatheticnervous system pathway. Cell bodies, dendritic projections, or axonalprojections may be stimulated. Indirect stimulation of a sympatheticnervous system 10 by stimulating tissue that can in turn stimulate thesympathetic nervous system 10 is also contemplated by variousembodiments of the invention. For example, stimulation of a stomach,pancreas, liver, gall bladder and/or adrenal medulla to stimulate asympathetic neuron are envisioned.

In an embodiment, one or more of the stimulated neurons are efferentneurons. Efferent fibers can be stimulated by stimulating an entiresympathetic nerve (i.e., both afferent and efferent nerves) or byisolating efferent nerves and stimulating them directly. The lattermethod can be accomplished by separating the afferent from the efferentfibers in an area of the nerve where both types of fibers are present.Alternatively, the efferent fiber is stimulated where substantially noafferent fibers are present, for example close to the end organ 152served by the efferent fibers. The efferent fibers can also bestimulated, e.g., electrically, by stimulating the end organ 152directly, thus stimulating the efferent fibers that serve that organ152. In other embodiments, the ganglion 135 or postganglionic neurons148 of a sympathetic nerve can be stimulated. A sympathetic nerve canalso be cut and the distal end can be stimulated, thus only stimulatingefferent sympathetic nerve fibers. In the case of the splenic nerve,where approximately 98% of the fibers are efferent, the entire nerve canbe stimulated without producing an excessive afferent stimulation.

When it is desired to reduce potential non-specific and/or undesiredeffects, it may be preferred that either preganglionic 149 orpostganglionic 148 neurons are stimulated. Preferably, postganglionicneurons 148 are stimulated. Various postganglionic sympathetic neurons148 that may be stimulated according to various embodiments of theinvention include the splenic nerve, splanchnic nerves, and others namedwith respect to the tissue that it innervates. It is preferred that theone or more stimulated neuron associated with the sympathetic nervoussystem include a neuron that innervates the spleen or other lymph organ,such as thymus, bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, and the like. Suchneurons include those of the splenic nerve, and the thymic nerve andothers that generally exist in larger nerve plexuses.

When an immediate attenuation of an immune response 20 is desired, forexample when a subject is undergoing an acute immune response 20 such asmay occur with sepsis, acute pancreatitis, myocardial infarction,ischemia/reperfusion injury, systemic inflammatory response syndrome,etc., it may be preferable to directly stimulate an end organ 152 orother tissue which may in turn stimulate one or more sympathetic neuron.Preferably the end organ 152 is a lymph organ, such as spleen, thymus,bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, and the like. Other tissue that maybe stimulated to indirectly stimulate one or more neuron associated withthe sympathetic nervous system includes the organs within the peritonealsac such as the pancreas, stomach, intestines, and other tissues such ascardiac tissue or a particular joint area. Preferably, stimulation ofthe other tissue stimulates a postganglionic sympathetic neuron 148 inan end organ 152 that is a lymph organ.

In some embodiments, a neuron may be stimulated to an extent that isinsufficient by itself to induce an action potential, placing the neuronin an activated state where the neuron will be more likely to undergo anaction potential in response to endogenous stimuli. In otherembodiments, a neuron may be stimulated to an extent that the neuron isinduced to undergo an action potential. In such embodiments, thefrequency with which the neuron undergoes an action potential may beclosely controlled.

Sympathetic neurons can be stimulated according to various embodimentsof the invention in a variety of ways, including chemically, with forexample a pharmacological agent, mechanically, and electrically. Anymeans suitable for stimulating a neuron may be used. Non-limitingexamples of suitable means include: mechanical means such as a needle,ultrasound, or vibration; any electromagnetic radiation such asinfrared, visible or ultraviolet light; heat, or any other energysource. In an embodiment, the sympathetic nervous system is stimulatedelectrically, using, e.g., a commercial pulse generator, such asMedtronic Model 3625 Test Stimulator or an electric probe or endoscopewith probe. Stimulation parameters, whether stimulation is by chemical,pharmacological, and/or mechanical means, can be determined by theskilled artisan for attenuating an immune response.

A stimulation parameter may be varied to achieve a desired result, suchas attenuation of an immune response 20. In an embodiment of theinvention, the stimulation signal may be varied to adjust the frequencywith which a stimulated neuron undergoes an action potential. Suchparameters can be readily determined and adjusted by a subject or ahealth care professional at any time during treatment. In one embodimentof the invention, a neuron will be stimulated such that it undergoes anaction potential with a frequency in the range of about 1 Hz to about120 Hz. In another embodiment, a neuron will be stimulated such that itundergoes an action potential with a frequency in the range of about 5Hz to about 50 Hz. In yet another embodiment, a neuron will bestimulated such that it undergoes an action potential with a frequencyin the range of about 5 Hz to about 20 Hz.

In an embodiment, the splenic nerve is stimulated such that it undergoesaction potential with a frequency in the range of about 1 Hz to about120 Hz. In another embodiment, the splenic nerve will be stimulated suchthat it undergoes an action potential with a frequency in the range ofabout 5 Hz to about 50 Hz. In yet another embodiment, the splenic nervewill be stimulated such that it undergoes an action potential with afrequency in the range of about 5 Hz to about 20 Hz.

The splenic nerve may be stimulated directly or indirectly. For examplea stimulatory signal may be applied to the splenic neurovascular bundleat one or more locations along the length of the spleen; the splenicneurovascular bundle either proximal or distal to the bifurcation of thesplenic artery and vein into upper and lower splenic branches; theperiarterial splenic nerve; a substantially fully dissected splenicnerve or nerve bundles, which contains essentially no vascular tissue;the splenic peritoneum; splenic tissue, including a lineal plexus;and/or combinations thereof. Further, to stimulate a neuron of thesplenic nerve, a stimulatory signal may also be applied to the celiacplexus surrounding the celiac artery, which consists of fibers derivedfrom the ganglia and the medulla spinalis; celiac ganglia; aorticorenalganglia, greater thoracic splanchnic nerves; lesser thoracic splanchnicnerves; least thoracic splanchinc nerves; lower thoracic sympathetictrunk ganglia; upper lumbar sympathetic trunk ganglia; preganglionicsympathetic fibers; preganglionic sympathetic fibers of T8-L2;sympathetic trunk ganglia of T8-L2; white ramus communicans of T8-L2;gray ramus communicans of T8-L2; spinal ganglia at T8-L2; ventral rootof T8-L2; pregagnglionic sympathetic fibers of T9; sympathetic trunkganglion of T9; white ramus communicans of T9; gray ramus communicans ofT9; spinal ganglion of T9; ventral root of T9, and/or combinationsthereof.

FIG. 4 depicts an embodiment of the invention where a device 100 isadopted to stimulate the sympathetic nervous system 10. A therapydelivery system suitable for stimulating a sympathetic nervous system 10may comprise a device 100 and a therapy delivery element 999, as shownin FIGS. 5A and 5B. The therapy delivery element 999 comprises aproximal portion coupled to the device 100 and a distal portion adaptedto be introduced to a target location 8 of a subject. As shown in FIG.5A, the device 100 may be external to the subject. As shown in FIG. 5 b,the device 100 may be implanted in the subject. Suitable devices 100 forstimulating the sympathetic nervous system or one or more neuronsassociated therewith include an electric probe, a pulse generator, adrug pump, and the like. Therapeutic element 999 may be, e.g., a lead ora catheter. Suitable implantable devices 100 include an implantablepulse generator, such as Medtronic's Model 7425 Itrel or Model 7427Synergy, and an implantable drug pump system, such as Medtronic'sSynchromed pump and catheter system. A programmer, separate from thetherapy delivery system, may be used to modify parameters of the system.Programming may be accomplished with a console remote programmer such asModel 7432 and Model 7457 memory module software or with a hand-heldprogrammer such as an Itrel EZ, available from Medtronic, Inc. ofMinneapolis, Minn. Any of a number of suitable programming and telemetrymethodologies known in the art may be employed so long as the desiredinformation is transmitted to and from the device 100.

1. Pulse Generator

In an embodiment of the invention, the device 100 may be a pulsegenerator 101. Any pulse generator 101 capable of stimulating asympathetic neuron may be used. Typically, pulse generators are coupledto one or more leads, with the leads being positioned to stimulate asympathetic neuron, either directly or indirectly.

FIG. 6A shows one embodiment of a pulse generator 101 according to thepresent invention. The pulse generator 101 in FIG. 6A is shown as animplantable pulse generator (IPG) 101 having a lead positioned at ornear a desired or target tissue 8. IPG 101 shown in FIG. 6A is animplantable pulse generator system comprising at least one implantablemedical electrical lead 16 attached to hermetically sealed enclosure 14.Lead 16 is shown implanted at or near desired or target tissue 8.Enclosure 14 may be formed of a biocompatible material such as anappropriate metal alloy containing titanium. It is important to notethat at least one more lead 18 (not shown in the drawings) may beemployed in accordance with certain embodiments of the presentinvention, where multiple target sites are to be stimulatedsimultaneously or sequentially and/or where such multiple target sitesare incapable of being stimulated, or are difficult to stimulate, usinga single lead even if the single lead contains multiple stimulationelectrodes or arrays of stimulation electrodes. FIG. 6C shows anillustrative IPG and associated medical electrical leads according toone embodiment of the present invention.

Referring now to FIG. 6B and FIGS. 7A through 7F, lead 16 provideselectrical stimulation pulses to the desired target sites. Lead 16 andlead 18 may have unipolar electrodes disposed thereon (where enclosure14 is employed as an indifferent electrode) or may have multipolar, e.g.bipolar, electrodes disposed thereon, where one or more electrodesdisposed on a lead are employed as the indifferent electrode. In oneembodiment of the present invention, lead 16 extends from lead connector13, which in turn forms an integral portion of lead extension 15connected at its proximal end to connector header module 12.

Any suitable material may be used for forming a lead body of leads 16,18. Examples of suitable materials include polyurethane and silicone.Electrical conductors extending between the proximal and distal ends ofleads 16 and 18 for supplying electrical current to the electrodes maybe formed of coiled, braided or stranded wires. The wires may be made ofany suitable material for carrying electrical current. In an embodiment,the wires comprise an MP35N platinum-iridium alloy. Electrodes 21, 22,23 and 24 may be ring electrodes, coiled electrodes, electrodes formedfrom portions of wire, barbs, hooks, spherically-shaped members,helically-shaped members, or may assume any of a number of differentstructural configurations well known in the art. Electrodes 21, 22, 23and 24 may be formed of any suitable material. Suitable materialsinclude metals and metal alloys, such as platinum and stainless steel.

The distal portion of lead 16 extends to a target site 8, and may beheld in such position by a lead anchor 19. Note that lead anchor 19 mayassume any of a number of different structural configurations such oneor more suture sleeves, tines, barbs, hooks, a helical screw, tissuein-growth mechanisms, adhesive or glue.

One, two, three, four or more electrodes 21, 22, 23 and 24 may bedisposed at the distal end of lead 16 and/or lead 18. Electrodes 21, 22,23 and 24 are preferably arranged in an axial array, although othertypes of arrays may be employed such as inter-lead arrays of electrodesbetween the distal ends of leads 16 and 18 such that nerves or nerveportions 8 disposed between leads 16 and 18 may be stimulated. Electrodeconfigurations, arrays and stimulation patterns and methods similar tothose disclosed by Holsheimer in U.S. Pat. No. 6,421,566 entitled“Selective Dorsal Column Stimulation in SCS, Using Conditioning Pulses,”U.S. Pat. No. 5,643,330 entitled “Multichannel Apparatus for EpiduralSpinal Cord Stimulation” and U.S. Pat. No. 5,501,703 entitled“Multichannel Apparatus for Epidural Spinal Cord INS,” the respectiveentireties of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein, mayalso be adapted or modified for use in the present invention. Electrodeconfigurations, arrays, leads, stimulation patterns and methods similarto those disclosed by Thompson in U.S. Pat. No. 5,800,465 entitled“System and Method for Multisite Steering of Cardiac Stimuli,” theentirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein, may alsobe adapted or modified for use in the present invention to permit thesteering of electrical fields. Thus, although the Figures show certainelectrode configurations, other lead locations and electrodeconfigurations are possible and contemplated in the present invention.

Typically, leads 16 and 18 are tunneled subcutaneously between thelocation of pulse generator 101 and the location or site to bestimulated. Pulse generator 101 is typically implanted in a subcutaneouspocket formed beneath the patient's skin according to methods well knownin the art. Further details concerning various methods of implanting apulse generator 101 and leads 16 and 18 are disclosed in the MedtronicInterstim Therapy Reference Guide published in 1999, the entirety ofwhich is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Other methods ofimplanting and locating leads 16 and 18 are also contemplated in thepresent invention.

U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/004,732 entitled “ImplantableMedical Electrical Stimulation Lead Fixation Method and Apparatus” and09/713,598 entitled “Minimally Invasive Apparatus for Implanting aSacral Stimulation Lead” to Mamo et al., the respective entireties ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference herein, describe methods ofpercutaneously introducing leads 16 and 18 to a desired stimulation sitein a patient.

Some representative examples of leads 16 and 18 include MEDTRONICstimulation lead model numbers 3080, 3086, 3092, 3487, 3966 and 4350 asdescribed in the MEDTRONIC Instruction for Use Manuals thereof, allhereby incorporated by reference herein, each in its respectiveentirety. Additional suitable leads include Medtronic's Pisces leads,Resume leads, as described in the MEDTRONIC Instruction for Use Manualsthereof, all hereby incorporated by reference herein, each in itsrespective entirety; and other custom builds such as cuff electrodes asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,344,437 (Testerman, Medtronic), which ishereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. See also FIGS. 7Bthrough 7F hereof, which disclose various embodiments of leads 16 and 18suitable for use in accordance with the present invention. IPG 101 mayalso be constructed or operate in accordance with at least some portionsof the implantable IPGs 101 disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,199,428 to Obelet al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,207,218 to Carpentier et al. or U.S. Pat. No.5,330,507 to Schwartz, all of which are hereby incorporated by referenceherein, each in its respective entirety. Electric probes such as thosecurrently available through Medtronic or a custom built probe may beused. Lead locations and electrode configurations other than thoseexplicitly shown and described here are of course possible andcontemplated in the present invention. Lead anchors 19 are shown in FIG.7C as a series of tines.

Some representative examples of pulse generators 101 include MEDTRONICimplantable electrical IPG model numbers 3023, 7424, 7425 Itrel, 7427Synergy and Medtronic Model 3625 Test stimulator as described in theInstruction for Use Manuals thereof, all hereby incorporated byreference herein, each in its respective entirety.

FIG. 8 shows a block diagram illustrating some of constituent componentsof a device 100 in accordance with an embodiment of the presentinvention. For the sake of convenience, device 100 in FIG. 8 isdiscussed with regard to an IPG 101. However, it will be understood thatthe device 100 the components and interactions described in FIG. 8 mayalso be applicable to embodiments where device 100 is a drug pump. Inthe block diagram of FIG. 8, pulse generator 101 has amicroprocessor-based architecture. Other architectures of pulsegenerators 101 are of course contemplated in the present invention, suchas the logic or state machine architecture employed in the MedtronicModel Number 3023 INS. For the sake of convenience, those componentsdiscussed above and other similar components are not shown in FIG. 8,but it should be understood that such components may be included in anpulse generator 101 according to various embodiments of the invention.Further for the sake of convenience, pulse generator 101 in FIG. 8 isshown with only one lead 16 connected thereto; similar circuitry andconnections not shown apply generally to lead 18 and other additionalleads not shown in the drawings.

When the pulse generator 101 is an IPG 101, the IPG 101 may beprogrammable by means of external programming unit 11 shown in FIG. 6 b.One such programmer is the commercially available Medtronic Model No.7432 programmer, which is microprocessor-based and provides a series ofencoded signals to IPG 101, typically through a programming head whichtransmits or telemeters radio-frequency (RF) encoded signals to IPG 101.Another suitable programmer is the commercially available MedtronicModel No. 8840 programmer, which is also microprocessor-based butfeatures a touch control screen. Any of a number of suitable programmingand telemetry methodologies known in the art may be employed so long asthe desired information is transmitted to and from the implantableelectrical IPG 101.

As shown in FIG. 8, IPG 101 may receive input signals via sensor 300 anddelivers output stimulation signals to lead 16. IPG 101 most preferablycomprises a CPU, processor, controller or micro-processor 31, powersource 32 (most preferably a primary or secondary battery), clock 33,memory 34, telemetry circuitry 35, input 36 and output 37. Electricalcomponents shown in FIG. 8 may be powered by an appropriate implantableprimary (i.e., non-rechargeable) battery power source 32 or secondary(i.e., rechargeable) battery power source 32. IPG 101 may also contain abattery or capacitor which receives power from outside the body byinductive coupling between an external transmitter and an implantedreceiver. For the sake of clarity, the coupling of power source 32 tothe various components of IPG 101 is not shown in the Figures. Anantenna is connected to processor 31 via a digital controller/timercircuit and data communication bus to permit uplink/downlink telemetrythrough RF transmitter and receiver telemetry unit 35. By way ofexample, telemetry unit 35 may correspond to that disclosed in U.S. Pat.No. 4,566,063 issued to Thompson et al. It is generally preferred thatthe particular programming and telemetry scheme selected permit theentry and storage of electrical stimulation parameters. The specificembodiments of the antenna and other telemetry circuitry presentedherein are shown for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended tolimit the scope of the present invention.

An output pulse generator provides a stimulation signal to the desiredtarget location 8 through, for example, a coupling capacitor in responseto a trigger signal provided by a digital controller/timer circuit, whenan externally transmitted stimulation command is received, or when aresponse to other stored commands is received. By way of example, anoutput amplifier of the present invention may correspond generally to anoutput amplifier disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,476,868 to Thompson,hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The specificembodiments of such an output amplifier are presented for illustrativepurposes only, and are not intended to be limiting in respect of thescope of the present invention. The specific embodiments of suchcircuits may not be critical to practicing some embodiments of thepresent invention so long as they provide means for generating anappropriate train of stimulating pulses to the desired target location.

In various embodiments of the present invention, pulse generator 101 maybe programmably configured to operate so that it varies the rate atwhich it delivers stimulation signals to the desired target location 8in response to one or more selected outputs being generated. Pulsegenerator 101 may further be programmably configured to operate so thatit may vary the morphology of the stimulation signals it delivers.Numerous external and implantable electrical pulse generator featuresand functions not explicitly mentioned herein may be incorporated intopulse generator 101, whether implantable or external, while remainingwithin the scope of the present invention. Various embodiments of thepresent invention may be practiced in conjunction with one, two, threeor more leads, or in conjunction with one, two, three, four or moreelectrodes.

It is important to note that leadless embodiments of the presentinvention are also contemplated, where one or more stimulation and/orsensing electrode capsules or modules are implanted at or near a desiredtarget tissue site, and the capsules or modules deliver electricalstimuli directly to the site using a preprogrammed stimulation regime,and/or the capsules or modules sense electrical or other pertinentsignals. Such capsules or modules may be powered by rechargeablebatteries that may be recharged by an external battery charger usingwell-known inductive coil or antenna recharging means, and may containelectronic circuitry sufficient to permit telemetric communication witha programmer, to deliver electrical stimuli and/or sense electrical orother signals, and to store and execute instructions or data receivedfrom the programmer. Examples of methods and devices that may be adaptedfor use in the wireless devices and methods of the present inventioninclude those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,208,894 to Schulman et al.entitled “System of implantable devices for monitoring and/or affectingbody parameters;” U.S. Pat. No. 5,876,425 to Schulman et al. entitled“Power control loop for implantable tissue stimulator;” U.S. Pat. No.5,957,958 to Schulman et al. entitled “Implantable electrode arrays;”and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/030,106 filed Feb. 25, 1998 toSchulman et al. entitled “Battery-Powered Patient Implantable Device,”all of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein, each in itsrespective entirety.

FIGS. 7B through 7F show various embodiments of the distal end of lead16 of the present invention. In FIGS. 7B and 7E, lead 16 is a paddlelead where electrodes 21-24 are arranged along an outwardly facingplanar surface. In FIG. 7C, lead 16 is a conventional quadrapolar leadhaving no pre-attached anchoring mechanism where electrodes 21-24 arecylindrical in shape and extend around the circumference of the leadbody. In FIG. 7D, lead 16 is a quadrapolar lead having tined leadanchors. The tines may be formed from flexible or rigid biocompatiblematerials in accordance with the application at hand. Representativeexamples of some tined and other types of leads suitable, adaptable ormodifiable for use in conjunction with the systems, methods and devicesof the present invention include those disclosed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. Nos. 10/004,732 entitled “Implantable MedicalElectrical Stimulation Lead Fixation Method and Apparatus” and09/713,598 entitled “Minimally Invasive Apparatus for Implanting aSacral Stimulation Lead” to Mamo et al., and those disclosed in U.S.Pat. No. 3,902,501 to Citron entitled “Endocardial Lead,” U.S. Pat. No.4,106,512 to Bisping entitled “Transvenously Implantable Lead,” and U.S.Pat. No. 5,300,107 to Stokes entitled “Universal Tined Myocardial PacingLead.” In FIG. 7D, lead 16 is a quadrapolar lead having a pre-attachedsuture anchor. In FIG. 7E, lead 16 comprises needle anchor/electrode19/20 disposed at its distal end and suture anchor 19. FIG. 7F showslead 16 as a tri-polar cuff electrode, where cuff/anchor 19 is wrappedaround desired nerve or nerve portion 8 to thereby secure the distal endof lead 16 to the nerve and position electrodes 20-22 against or nearnerve or nerve portion 8. The Medtronic Model No. 3995 cuff electrodelead is one example of a lead that may be adapted for use in the presentinvention, the Instructions for Use manual of which entitled “INTERSTIMManual: Model 3995 Implantable bipolar peripheral nerve and spinal rootstimulation lead” is hereby incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety.

FIG. 7A illustrates one embodiment of an implantable stimulation systemsuitable for use in the present invention, where the system comprisespulse generator 101 and at least one associated medical electrical lead16. Pulse generator 101 may be an implantable pulse generator such as aMEDTRONIC ITREL® 3 Model 7425 IPG that produces or generates anelectrical stimulation signal adapted for the purposes of the presentinvention. IPG 101 may be surgically implanted such as in a subcutaneouspocket in the abdomen or positioned outside the patient. When positionedoutside the patient, the pulse generator 101 may be attached to thepatient. Pulse generator 101 may be programmed to modify parameters ofthe delivered electrical stimulation signal such as frequency,amplitude, duratiaon, and pulse width in accordance with variousembodiments of the present invention.

Any combination of stimulation signal parameters may be used. Preferablythe combination of stimulation signal parameters is sufficient tostimulate a neuron. In an embodiment, the pulse width of a stimulationsignal with which a neuron is stimulated may be within the range ofabout 10 μsec to about 600 μsec. In an embodiment, the pulse width is inthe range of about 90 μsec to about 500 μsec. In another embodiment thepulse width is in the range of about 300 μsec to about 500 μsec. Thefrequency of a stimulation signal with which a neuron is stimulated maybe, e.g., within the range of about 1 Hz to about 120 Hz. In anembodiment, the frequency is in the range of about 5 Hz to about 50 Hz.In another embodiment the frequency is in the range of about 5 Hz toabout 20 Hz. The amplitude of a stimulation signal with which a neuronis stimulated may be, e.g., within the range of about 1 mA to about 20mA. In an embodiment, the amplitude is in the range of about 5 mA toabout 15 mA. In another embodiment the amplitude is in the range ofabout 8 mA to about 12 mA. It will be understood that the stimulationsignal may include a voltage parameter rather than a current parameter.The voltage of a stimulation signal with which a neuron is stimulatedmay be, e.g., in the range of about 0.1 mV to about 30 V, about 1 V toabout 20 V, or about 5 V to about 10 V. The duration of a stimulationsignal with which a neuron is stimulated may be any duration to achievea desired effect. Non-limiting examples of durations for whichstimulation signals may be applied to a sympathetic neuron include therange between about 10 minutes and about 10 hours, the range betweenabout 1 hour and about 6 hours, and the range between about 2 hours andabout 4 hours.

In an embodiment illustrated in FIG. 9, device 100 is a pulse generator101 adapted to stimulate the splenic nerve 105 of a subject. While FIG.9 shows a device 100 as a pulse generator 101, it will be understoodthat any device 100 capable of stimulating a sympathetic nervous system10 of a subject when therapy delivery element 999 is positioned todeliver therapy to a target location 8 may be used in accordance withthe invention. Such devices 100 include drug pumps with a catheterserving as therapy delivery element 999.

As shown in FIG. 9, the splenic nerve 105 runs as part of the greatersplanchnic nervel 35 to the celiac plexus 110, which is found at thejunction of the abdominal aorta 115 and the splenic artery 120, alongthe splenic artery 120 to innervate the spleen 125. A lead 16 ispositioned to stimulate the splenic nerve 105. The lead 16 has aproximal end 198 coupled to the pulse generator and a distal end 199adapted to stimulate the splenic nerve 105. The distal end 199 of thelead 16 may be positioned anywhere along the splenic nerve 105 or anyregion upstream of the splenic nerve 105, the stimulation of which wouldserve to stimulate the splenic nerve 105. Such upstream regions includethe greater splanchnic nerve 135, the intermediolateral cell column ofthe lateral horn of the thoracolumbar spinal cord 140 at about T4-T10where preganglionic cell body 148 of the splenic nerve resides,projections 145 from the CNS to preganglionic neurons at about T4-T10 ofthe thoracolumbar spinal column 140, preganglionic neurons andpostganglionic neurons, as well as regions of the brain 150, includingbrainstem, midbrain such as the paraventricular nucleus of thehypothalamus, rostral ventrolateral medulla, ventromedial medulla, andcaudal raphe nucleus, and the forebrain, which send projections a 145 toabout T4-T10 of the thoracolumbar spinal cord 140, which contain cellbodies 148 of preganglionic neurons of the splenic nerve 105. The lead16 may also be positioned to stimulate the spleen 125. The lead 16 mayalso be positioned to stimulate other tissue that is capable oftransmitting a stimulatory signal to the splenic nerve.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 9, the device 100 may take theform of a pulse generator 101, such as Test Stimulator Model 3625manufactured by Medtronic, Inc. Lead 16 may take the form of any of theleads sold with the Model 3675, such as Model YY0050931R or other custommade leads.

The range of frequency with which the splenic nerve 105 undergoes anaction potential may be varied by adjusting stimulation parameters ofthe pulse generator 101. Desired parameters will become evident upontreatment of a subject with stimulation therapy. Typically stimulationparameters of the pulse generator 101 will be adjusted such that thesplenic nerve 105 will undergo an action potential at a frequency in therange of about 2 Hz to about 150 Hz, about 5 Hz to about 100 Hz, about10 Hz to about 100 Hz, or about 10 Hz to about 50 Hz. In a specificembodiment to the splenic nerve of a subject is stimulated at 10 Hz withconstant voltage of 10V and a pulse width of 450 μs.

2. Drug Pump

In an embodiment of the invention, device 100 is a drug pump and therapydelivery element 999 is a catheter. A drug pump system may include acatheter coupled to a pump. In an embodiment, the drug pump is animplantable drug pump.

Referring to FIG. 10, a system according to an embodiment of theinvention comprises a drug pump device 30. The drug pump device 30comprises a pump 40 coupled to a reservoir 12 for housing a compositioncomprising a pharmacological agent. The system further comprises acatheter 38. The catheter 38 comprises a proximal portion 35 coupled tothe pump 40 and a distal portion 39 adapted for infusing the compositionto a target location 8. It will be recognized that the catheter 38 mayhave one or more drug delivery regions along the length of the catheter38 and that a drug delivery region may or may not be at the distal end39 of the catheter 38. The drug pump device 30 may be implantable or maybe an external device. The drug pump device 30 may have a port 44 intowhich a hypodermic needle can be inserted to inject a quantity oftherapeutic agent into reservoir 12. The drug pump device 30 may have acatheter port 47, to which the proximal portion 45 of catheter 38 may becoupled. The catheter port 47 may be coupled to pump 40 through aninternal catheter 10. A connector 14 may be used to couple the catheter38 to the catheter port 47 of the device 30. Drug pump device 30 maytake the form of the device shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,692,147 (Duggan),assigned to Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn., commercially availableas the Synchromed® infusion pump, which is incorporated by reference.

Drug pump device 30, such as Medtronic's SYNCHROMED pump system, may beoperated to discharge a predetermined dosage of a pharmacological agentto a target location 8. The drug pump device 30 may contain amicroprocessor 42 or similar device that can be programmed to controlthe amount of fluid delivery. The programming may be accomplished withan external programmer/control unit via telemetry. A controlled amountof fluid comprising one or more pharmacological agents may be deliveredover a specified time period. With the use of a drug pump device 30,different dosage regimens may be programmed for a particular patient.Additionally, different therapeutic dosages can be programmed fordifferent combinations of fluid comprising therapeutics. Those skilledin the art will recognize that a programmed drug pump device 30 allowsfor starting conservatively with lower doses and adjusting to a moreaggressive dosing scheme, if warranted, based on safety and efficacyfactors.

If it is desirable to administer more than one therapeutic agent, thecomposition within the reservoir 12 may contain a second, third, fourth,etc. therapeutic agent. Alternatively, the drug pump device 30 may havemore than one reservoir 12 for housing additional compositionscomprising a therapeutic agent. When the device 30 has more than onereservoir 12, the pump 40 may draw fluid from the one or more reservoirs12 and deliver the drawn fluid to the catheter 38. The drug pump device30 may contain a valve coupled to the pump 40 for selecting from whichreservoir(s) 12 to draw fluid. Further, one or more catheters 38 may becoupled to the drug pump device 30. Each catheter 38 may be adapted fordelivering a therapeutic agent from one or more reservoirs 12 of thedevice 30. A catheter 38 may have more than one lumen. Each lumen may beadapted to deliver a therapeutic agent from one or more reservoirs 12 ofthe pump 40. It will also be understood that more than one implantabledevice 30 may be used if it is desirable to deliver more than onetherapeutic agent. Such drug pump devices, catheters, and systemsinclude those described in, for example, copending application Ser. No.10/245,963, entitled IMPLANTABLE DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS AND METHODS,filed on Dec. 23, 2003, which application is hereby incorporated hereinby reference.

Drug pump device 30 may be implanted below the skin of a patient.Preferably, the drug pump device 30 is implanted in a location whereimplantation interferes as little as practicable with patient activity.Drug pump device 30 may be implanted subcutaneously in any medicallyacceptable area of the human body, such as in an abdominal pocket.

According to an embodiment of the invention, distal end 39 of thecatheter 38 is positioned to infuse a fluid into a target location 8.Catheter 38 may be positioned so that the distal tip 39 of catheter 38is in proximity to target location 8.

A therapy delivery system may include an external drug pump device 30.The proximal end 45 of a catheter 38 may be coupled to the device andthe distal end 39 of the catheter 38 may be positioned to deliver atherapeutic agent pumped from the external device 30 through thecatheter 38 to a target location 8 within a subject. External deliverydevice 30 may be used as part of a drug trial system prior to use of animplantable pump system. Use of an external drug pump device 30 in sucha manner provides an indication as to whether a patient will respondfavorably to treatment prior to subjecting the patient to surgeryassociated with an implantable pump system. Any dose of therapeuticagent may be administered with an external therapy delivery deviceaccording to various embodiments of the invention. When used as a drugtrial system, the dose of a therapeutic agent is typically startedconservatively with lower doses and adjusted to higher doses until painrelief is noticed. It will also be recognized that single or multipleinjections, without the use of a drug pump device 30, may also be usedas to screen patients that are favorable candidates for an implantabletherapy delivery device.

In an embodiment, a drug pump system is adapted to stimulate asympathetic nervous system 10 or one or more neuron associatedtherewith. For example, a drug pump may deliver an agonist of astimulatory neurotransmitter receptor (e.g., a glutamate receptor) or anantagonist of an inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor (e.g., a GABAreceptor) to a region in close proximity to a neuron associated with asympathetic neurotransmitter system. In addition, a cholineric agonistmay be administered to a region in close proximity to a ganglion of thesympathetic nervous system. In an embodiment, a sympathetic stimulatoryagent is delivered in close proximity to ganglion associated with asympathetic nerve that innervates a lymphoid tissue. Sympatheticstimulatory agents may be delivered anywhere along the sympatheticpathway, including at brain 150 areas such as the paraventricularnucleus of the hypothalamus, rostral ventrolateral medulla, ventromedialmedulla, and caudal raphe nucleus, along projections 145 a from thebrain 150 to the preganglionic cell bodies 148, within theintermediolateral cell column of the lateral horn of the spinal cord 140at T1-L2, along projections 146 b that exit the spinal cord 140 throughthe ventral roots and go to sympathetic ganglia 135, at sympatheticganglia 135, along a projection 146 c of postganglionic neuron 148, andat or near an end organ 152.

In an embodiment, the drug pump system is adapted to mimic stimulationof a sympathetic nervous system. Agonists of receptors ofneurotransmitters released from sympathetic neurons, such asnorepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine and substance P, may be deliveredto an end organ to mimic stimulation of a sympathetic nervous system.Such agonists include epinephrine, norepinephrine, clonidine,methyl-Dopa, Guanabenz and other sympathomimetic agents, such asmetaproteranol, terbutaline, fenoterol, albuterol, pirbuterol andsalmeterol, and the like. Preferably, agonists of receptors ofneurotransmitters released from sympathetic neurons are administered inclose proximity to a lymphoid tissue or organ. Similarly, an alphaadrenergic antagonist, including terazozin, doxazosin, tamulosin,parazosin, and the like, may be administered.

When a drug pump device 30 is employed, the amount of a pharmacologicalagent may be closely controlled. For example, an agent may be releasedin a pulsating manner or may be continuously infused.

Modification of Stimulation Parameters

FIG. 11 illustrates an embodiment of the invention where the extent ofstimulation of one or more sympathetic neuron may be varied during thecourse of stimulation therapy. At step 200, a subject is diagnosed andit is determined whether the subject has an immune response for whichattenuation may be beneficial. Subjects for which attenuation of animmune response may be beneficial include subjects experiencing adeleterious characteristic, disorder, or disease associated with animmune response. In an embodiment, the subject is suffering from adeleterious characteristic, disorder, or disease associated with aninflammatory immune response. The diagnosis 200 may be accompanied by anassessment of one or more of levels of immune mediators, measurements ofobjective symptoms related to the deleterious characteristic, disorder,and/or disease state of an immune response, and the subject's perceptionas to the extent of the symptoms. After a subject is diagnosed 200 ashaving an immune response for which attenuation may be beneficial, thestimulation of the subject's sympathetic nervous system is initiated210. An initial set of stimulation parameters may be set based on thedegree of the patient's deleterious characteristic, disorder, or diseaseassociated with an immune response. The initial stimulation parametersmay also vary depending on the one or more neurons to be initiallystimulated 210. Such parameters will become evident in practice by theskilled clinician. After initial stimulation 210, a determination may bemade as to whether the stimulation 210 resulted in an improvement 220 inthe subject's condition. Improvement 220 can be assessed by one or morechanges in levels of immune mediators, objective changes in symptomsrelated to the deleterious characteristic, disorder, and/or diseasestate of an immune response, changes in the subject's perception as tothe extent of the symptoms, and the like. One or more criterion fordetermining an improvement 220 can be determined by a skilled clinicianin practice. Algorithms for determining whether overall criteria are metmay be employed and may be useful where more than one criterion is usedto determine whether improvement 220 has occurred. If criteria forimprovement 220 are not met, a determination of whether maximalstimulation 230 parameters have been met may be performed. Maximalstimulation 230 parameters may be determined prior to initiation ofstimulation 210 therapy or may be determined during therapy asconditions warrant. If maximum stimulation 230 parameters forstimulation of the subject's sympathetic nervous system have been met, adetermination may be made as to whether the subject's sympatheticnervous system has been stimulated at maximal stimulation 230 for amaximal duration 250. The maximal duration 250 of maximal stimulation230 may be determined prior to initiation of stimulation. 210 therapy ormay be determined during therapy. If the subject's sympathetic nervoussystem has been maximally stimulated 230 for the maximal duration 250,stimulation may be stopped 260. If the maximal duration 250 of maximalstimulation 230 has not been reached or if maximal stimulation 230parameters have not been met, the stimulation signal may be increased240. After the stimulation signal is increased 240, a determination maybe made as to whether the increased stimulation 240 resulted in animprovement 220 in the subject's condition. If no improvement 220 isdetected, a determination may again be made as to whether maximumstimulation 230 parameters have been met and as to whether maximalduration 250 at maximal stimulation 230 has been achieved. If maximalstimulation 230 and maximal duration 250 parameters have not been met,the stimulation may again be increased 240. If the parameters have beenmet, stimulation may be stopped 260.

If, at any time after stimulation therapy is initiated 210, animprovement 220 is detected, the stimulation signal may be decreased270. The extent to which the stimulation signal may be decreased 270 maybe determined prior to initiation of stimulation 210 therapy or may bedetermined during therapy as conditions warrant. For example, a markedimprovement 220 may warrant a greater decrease 270 in stimulation than aslight improvement 220. After decreasing stimulation 270, adetermination may be made as to whether the decreased stimulation 270resulted in a regression 280 in the subject's condition. Regression 280can be assessed by one or more of changes in levels of immune mediators,objective changes in symptoms related to the deleterious characteristic,disorder, and/or disease state of an immune response, changes in thesubject's perception as to the extent of the symptoms, and the like. Oneor more criterion for determining a regression 280 can be determined bya skilled clinician in practice. Algorithms for determining whetheroverall criteria are met may be employed, and may be useful where morethan one criterion is used to determine whether regression 280 hasoccurred. If criteria for regression 280 have not been met, thestimulation may be further decreased 270. The subject may then again beassessed for regression 280. If regression is not detected, thestimulation may be further decreased 270. Eventually, stimulation may bedecreased 270 to a point where stimulation is ceased. If, at any pointafter decreasing stimulation 270, a regression 280 is detected,stimulation may be increased 240. A determination may then be made as towhether an improvement 220 resulted from the increased stimulation 240to determine whether to a) further increase stimulation 240, b) stopstimulation 260 due to maximal stimulation 230 for maximal duration 250,or c) decrease stimulation 270.

Prior to initiation of stimulation 210 therapy, the subject may bediagnosed 200 as having an immune response for which stimulation of thesubject's sympathetic nervous system may be beneficial. Diagnosis 200may include determining whether the patient has a symptom of adeleterious characteristic, disease, and/or disorder of an immuneresponse, determining the level of a mediator of an immune response inthe subject, determining the level of a mediator of an anti-immuneresponse in the subject, and the like. If a subject has a symptom of adeleterious characteristic, disease, and/or disorder of an immuneresponse, the symptom may be quantified. A symptom may be quantifiedeither objectively or subjectively, through, e.g., the subject'sperception of improvement. Attenuation of an immune response 20, used inFIG. 6 as “improvement” 220, may be detected, relative to the diagnosis210, by measuring a reduction in a quantified symptom of a deleteriouscharacteristic, disease, and/or disorder of an immune response, areduction in the level of a mediator of an immune response, an increasein the level of an anti-immune response, and the like, or a combinationthereof. As used herein, “attenuating an immune response” means toreduce the ability of a subject to produce an immune response, reducethe ability of a subject to produce mediators of an immune response,increase the ability of a subject to produce an anti-immune response,and/or increase the ability of a subject to produce mediators of ananti-immune response. Any measurable mediator or symptom associated withan immune response or anti-immune response may be used to diagnose 210 asubject or to determine whether a subject has undergone an improvement220 or a regression 280. As used herein, “regression” 280 means anunfavorable or undesirable change in a deleterious characteristic orsymptom of a disorder or disease state, which change follows a priorimprovement in a deleterious characteristic or symptom of a disorder ordisease state. For example, if the level of a mediator of an immuneresponse in a subject were first found to decrease, thus marking animprovement 220, and then found to increase, the latter increase wouldbe considered a regression 280.

One or more condition 310 of a subject associated with an immuneresponse or with stimulation of a neuron may be assessed to determine ahealth state of the subject. Improvements 220 and regressions 280 of thehealth state of the patient may be assessed based on changes in the oneor more conditions 310.

Sensor

FIG. 12 illustrates an embodiment of the invention where a sensor 300can detect a condition 310. A sensor 300 may detect a condition 310prior to initiation of therapy or at any time during therapy. The sensor300 may be coupled to a device 100, which can generate or modify acondition 310. The sensor 300 may modify parameters of the device 100 tochange the ability of the device 100 to generate or modify the condition310. The device 100 may stimulate a sympathetic neuron to attenuate animmune response 20. The condition 310 generated or modified by thedevice 100 can thus be a condition 310 associated with stimulation of aneuron or a condition 310 associated with attenuation of an immuneresponse 20. Any condition 310 associated with stimulation of asympathetic nervous system 10 or associated with attenuation of animmune response 20 may be detected by sensor 300. A condition 310associated with attenuation of an immune response 20 can be, forexample, a deleterious characteristic or symptom associated with adisorder or disease associated with an immune response 20. A condition310 associated with stimulation of a sympathetic neuron can be, forexample, membrane potential of a neuron, frequency with which thestimulated neuron undergoes an action potential, or level or amount of asympathetic neurotransmitter 154 released from the neuron or present inthe subject.

FIG. 13A shows a block diagram of one embodiment of an open-loop therapydelivery system of the present invention. The therapy delivery systemcomprises a device 100 and a therapy delivery element 999 adapted todeliver a stimulation signal to a target tissue location 8. The device100 may be, e.g., a pulse generator or a drug pump, which may beexternal to or implantable within a subject. FIG. 13B shows a blockdiagram of a closed-loop therapy delivery system according to anembodiment of the invention. FIG. 13C shows a block diagram of yetanother embodiment of a closed loop therapy delivery system according toan embodiment of the present invention having a wireless connectionbetween sensor 300 and device 100.

In a closed-loop feedback control embodiment of the present invention,sensor 300 and sensing and computing circuitry in device 100 cooperateto detect when a sensed signal has fallen below or risen above apredetermined threshold, as the case may be. Once the sensed signal hasremained above or below the predetermined threshold for a predeterminedperiod of time, therapy delivery circuitry in device 100 may bedisabled. Such therapy delivery circuitry in device 100 may besubsequently enabled or activated when the sensed signal has once againrisen above or fallen below the same or a different predeterminedthreshold. Similarly, therapy delivery circuitry in device 100 may beenabled when the sensed signal has remained above or below thepredetermined threshold for a predetermined period of time, and suchcircuitry may subsequently be disabled or inactivated when the sensedsignal has once again risen above or fallen below the same or adifferent predetermined threshold.

Sensor 300 may detect biochemical parameters, physiological parameters,and combinations thereof. Biological parameters include pH, a chemical,an ion, a biological molecule, a gas, spectral indicators thereof, andcombinations thereof. Physiological parameters such as body temperature,heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output, electrical activity of aneuron, and the like, or combinations thereof.

Some examples of sensor technology that may be adapted for use in someembodiments of the present invention include those disclosed in thefollowing U.S. patents:

-   -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,640,764 for “Method of forming a tubular        feed-through hermetic seal for an implantable medical device;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,660,163 for “Glucose sensor assembly;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,750,926 for “Hermetically sealed electrical        feedthrough for use with implantable electronic devices;∞    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,791,344 for “Patient monitoring system;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,917,346 for “Low power current to frequency        converter circuit for use in implantable sensors;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,957,958 for “Implantable electcrode arrays;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,999,848 for ¢Daisy chainable sensors and        stimulators for implantation in living tissue;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,043,437 for “Alumina insulation for coating        implantable components and other microminiature devices;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,088,608 for “Electrochemical sensor and        integrity tests therefor;”    -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,259,937 for “Implantable substrate sensor.”

Each of the foregoing patents is incorporated by reference herein, eachin its respective entirety.

Sensor 300 may be any means capable of detecting a condition 310associated with simulation of a sympathetic neuron or associated withattenuation of an immune response 20. Non limiting examples of suitablesensors 300 include a test kit; a chemical or biological assay; anelectrical probe; thermodilution system; pressure sensor; microchip andthe like.

In an embodiment, sensor 300 may include a probe capable of detectingelectrical activity of a neuron. Such electrical activity includes themembrane potential of a neuron and the frequency with which a neuronundergoes an action potential. Probes capable of measuring suchelectrical activity include intracellular probes, extracellular probes,and patch clamps. Specific commercially available probes of this natureinclude Bio Amp/Stimulation systems (Power Lab AD instruments). Inaddition, the probe may detect electrical activity of a region of tissuecomprising a neuron.

In an embodiment, sensor 300 may detect the amount of neurotransmitter154 released from a stimulated sympathetic nerve. The amount ofneurotransmitter 154 released may be measured by determining the amountor level of the neurotransmitter 154 or its metabolites at the nerveterminal, within the region of the nerve terminal, systemically, at thesite of desired neurotransmitter 154 action, and/or at any site that isapparent to a clinician practicing one or more embodiments of theinvention. Means for detecting the level of neurotransmitter 154 includean electrode with an ion selective coating applied which is capable ofdirectly transducing the amount of a particular transmitter substance orits metabolic by-products. An example of this type of transducer isdescribed in the paper “Multichannel semiconductor-based electrodes forin vivo electrochemical and electrophysiological studies in rat CNS” byCraig G. van Home, Spencer Bement, Barry J. Hoffer, and Greg A.Gerhardt, published in Neuroscience Letters, 120 (1990) 249-252.

In an embodiment, the level of norepinephrine is detected by the sensor300. Any method and sensor capable of detecting norepinepherine may beemployed. For example, norepinepherine may be detected by microdialysis,chromatography and microchip. Norepinephrine is typically rapidlydegraded after release by enzymes such as3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol (MHPG) and3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylene-glycol (DHPG). Thus, metabolites ofnorepinephrine such as MHPG and DHPG may be detected by sensor 300.

In an embodiment, sensor 300 may detect a deleterious characteristic orsymptom associated with a disorder or disease associated with an immuneresponse. For example, the sensor 300 may detect the level of cytokine,body temperature, white blood cell count, subjective severity, and thelike.

Sensor 300 may be external to the subject or may be implantable.Examples of implantable sensors capable of detecting biochemical orphysiological parameters include recording electrodes for detecting theelectrical activity of a neuron or tissue regions comprising neurons,transducers capable of detecting amounts of a chemical including aneurotransmitter or its metabolites, cytokine, adhesion molecule,neurotrophic factor and other immune markers. These parameters arerelated to attenuation of an immune response in that they are allinvolved in the inflammatory cascade.

In an embodiment, sensor 300 is coupled to device 100 to modifyparameters of the device 100 such that the device 100 increasesstimulation 240 or decreases stimulation 270 of a sympathetic neuron.FIG. 14 reveals an embodiment where sensor 300 is coupled to filter 706of device 100 through coupler 735. Sensor 300 may be coupled to device100 through any means capable of transmitting information from thesensor 300 to the device 100. For example, the output of sensor 300 maybe coupled by cable, comprising conductors, to an analog to digitalconverter within device 100. Alternatively, the output of sensor 300 maycommunicate with the device 100 through a telemetry downlink. The outputfrom sensor 300 can be filtered by an appropriate electronic filter 706in order to provide a control signal for device 100.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 14, device 100 is a pulse generator 101.It will be recognized that other devices 100, such as a drug pump, etc.,may be connected to a sensor. Referring to FIG. 8, the output of thefilter 706 may be connected to a microprocessor 700 through a peripheralbus 702 including address, data and control lines. Microprocessor 700processes the sensor data in different ways depending on the type oftransducer in use. When the signal on sensor 300 exceeds or is below alevel programmed by a clinician and stored in a memory 704, stimulationapplied through an output driver 724 will be appropriately increased 240or decreased 270. The stimulus pulse frequency of the pulse generator101 is controlled by programming a value to a programmable frequencygenerator 708 using bus 702. The programmable frequency generatorprovides an interrupt signal to microprocessor 700 through an interruptline 710 when each stimulus pulse is to be generated. The frequencygenerator implemented may be model CDP 1878 sold by Harris Corporation.The amplitude for each stimulus pulse may be programmed to a digital toanalog converter 718 using bus 702. The analog output may be conveyedthrough a conductor 720 to an output driver circuit 724 to controlstimulus amplitude.

Microprocessor 700 may also program a pulse width control module 714using bus 702. The pulse width control provides an enabling pulse ofduration equal to the pulse width via a conductor 716. Pulses with theselected characteristics are then delivered from pulse generator 101through lead 16 to stimulate a sympathetic nervous system 10 or one ormore neuron associated therewith.

System

An embodiment of the invention provides a system for attenuating aninflammatory immune response. As shown in FIG. 15, the system mayinclude a device 100 capable of stimulating a sympathetic nervous system10 of a subject. An operator 900 may provide the device 100, via devicememory 704, with parameters for carrying out stimulation of thesympathetic nervous system 10 or one or more neurons associatedtherewith. The operator 900 may be a subject or may be a health careprofessional or other caregiver. The system may contain instructions 910for the operator regarding how to operate the device 100 to stimulatethe sympathetic nervous system 10. The instructions 910 may simplyindicate that the system is capable of attenuating an immune response bystimulating a sympathetic nervous system 10 or one or more neuronsthereof. The system may also include one or more sensor 300 fordetecting a condition 310, which may be generated or modified by thedevice 100. In some embodiments, the sensor 300 may directly modifystimulation parameters of the device 100 based on one or more detectedcondition 310. In other embodiments, the sensor 300 may serve to notifyan operator 900 of a detected condition 310. The operator 900 may modifystimulation parameters of the device 100 based on information receivedfrom the sensor 300. In some embodiments, the sensor 300 may be theoperator 900.

The invention may also be embodied as a computer-readable medium thatincludes instructions to cause a processor to perform any of the methodsdescribed herein. These and other embodiments are within the scope ofthe following claims.

All patents, patent applications, technical papers, and publicationscited herein are hereby incorporated by reference herein, each in itsrespective entirety. As those of ordinary skill in the art will readilyappreciate upon reading the description herein, at least some of thedevices and methods disclosed in the patents and publications citedherein may be modified advantageously in accordance with the teachingsof the present invention.

EXAMPLE

The following example is provided to illustrate specific embodiments ofthe invention only, and should not be construed as limiting the scope ofthe invention.

Methods

A porcine model of endotoxic shock was established previously for use inthe following procedure. Here, the porcine model was validated and theeffects of systemic LPS administration (decreased WBC count, increasedpro-inflammatory cytokines, etc.) were demonstrated to be consistentwith sepsis models of other species. The dose of endotoxin administeredis generally lethal within 8 hrs if no attempt at recovery is made. Pigs(50-80 kg) were housed at 22° C. on a 12 hr light/dark cycle. Theanimals were cared for and housed at Physiological Research Laboratories(Coon Rapids, Minn.) in individual runs that meet the weight-spacespecifications recommended in The Guide for the Care and Use ofLaboratory Animals. The protocol was in compliance with the AnimalWelfare Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-544), and all amendments. Experiments wereperformed under the protocols approved by the Institutional Animal Careand Use Committee.

Verapamil (SR) (360 mg, SID) was administered the afternoon of the dayprior to surgery and again the morning of surgery. The morning ofsurgery sedation was induced with Acepromazine 1.1 mg/kg IM givenapproximately ½ hr prior to anesthesia induction, followed by Xylazine 1mg/kg and Ketamine 11 mg/kg given together IM, masked down on Isofluraneto an appropriate plane of anesthesia, intubated and maintained onIsoflurane.

Warming blankets were used to keep the animal at normothermia as much asfeasible. Vascular catheters were placed in the left common carotidartery for systemic arterial pressure monitoring and drawing bloodsamples. Another catheter was placed in a femoral vein for infusion ofbacteria. A pulmonary arterial catheter was inserted via the rightexternal jugular vein and positioned in the pulmonary artery formeasurement of pulmonary arterial pressure and cardiac output. Animalswere subjected to a lateral flank incision made 2-5 inches from thespleen in which the splenic nerve was isolated near the splenic hilus. Acuff electrode (FIG. 16) was placed around the isolated branches of thesplenic nerve, including some branches of the vasculature andsurrounding connective tissue. FIG. 17 demonstrates the surgicalapproach (FIG. 17A.), the splenic nerve insitu (FIG. 17B an C), and thehistology of the nerve following the full procedure (FIG. 17D). Duringeach procedure, effort was made to consistently place electrode wiresaround a splenic nerve bundle at its location closest to the splenichilus. Consistent electrode placement/content was confirmed duringnecropsy via gross pathology and histology analysis.

Lipopolysaccharide (Escherichia coli 0111:B4; Sigma Chemical Co, St.Louis, Mo.). Sepsis was induced by continuous i.v. infusion ofEscherichia coli (E. coli) lipopolysaccharide in saline solution 5μg/kg/hr for two hours via a 12 cc leur-lock syringe and an infusionpump with catheter.

To determine whether direct stimulation of sympathetic nerve activitymight suppress the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin, splenicnerve activity was stimulated by application of constant voltage stimuliduring the administration of a lethal LPS dose and for two hoursfollowing LPS administration. Animals either receivedendotoxin+electrical stimulation, electrical stimulation alone, orendotoxin alone. Animals that received endotoxin alone underwent cuffelectrode placement but the stimulator did not get turned on at anytimeduring the procedure. Electrical stimulation of the splenic nerve wasachieved by a Medtronic test stimulator Model 3625. The cuff electrodewas attached to the stimulator via alligator clip attaching theconnector pin. Approximately 450 μsec wide pulses and burst frequenciesof about 10 Hz were used at 10 Volts.

Arterial blood was collected at baseline and at 30 minute intervals for8 hours following initial bacterial infusion. Blood samples were drawnfrom the arterial line for cytokine later analysis. Blood samples wereallowed to clot for at least 30 minutes before centrifuging for 10minutes at 2200 rpm. Serum was removed, aliquoted and stored in −20° C.freezer. Determination of cytokine levels was preformed according to theprotocols included in the commercially available ELISA kits for TumorNecrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-a), interleukin(IL)-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 (R & DSystems, Minneapolis Minn.).

Animals were euthanized immediately following the procedure followingthe AVMA Panel of 2000 guidelines.

Results

After 4 hours of stimulation at various frequencies (1-120 Hz) theartery and nerves remain intact. This is demonstrated by thehistological evidence shown in FIG. 17D. This, together withobservations made during necropsy suggest that stimulating the splenicnerve at various frequency, for varying periods of time does notadversely effect the splenic nerve tissue, surrounding tissue or vitalorgans.

To determine if the electrical stimulation of the splenic nerve is safe,mean arterial blood pressures were measured throughout the study. MABPwere compared between stimulated and non-stimulated septic animals. FIG.18 shows this comparison. All data are expressed as % MABP frombaseline. Electrical stimulation did not significantly affect MABP.Additionally, cardiac output was not significantly altered by electricalstimulation. Together, these data suggest that electrical stimulationapplied to the splenic nerve does not adversely affect cardiacphysiology. It is therefore believed that stimulation of the splenicnerve will be safe in both acute and chronic situations.

As shown in FIG. 19(A-C), the results establish that electricalstimulation of the splenic nerve bundle significantly attenuates the LPSinduced increase in serum TNF, IL-1 and IL-6 levels respectively.Preliminary evidence demonstrates that electrical stimulation of thesplenic nerve also affects anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10.

As shown in FIG. 20, the results establish that electrical stimulationof the splenic nerve bundle rescues the LPS-induced reduction in whiteblood cell count.

Discussion

Considered together, these observations indicate that stimulation of thesplenic nerve activity downregulates systemic TNF production and thedevelopment of shock and inflammatory sequlea during lethal endotoxemia.Splenic nerve stimulation significantly attenuated the development ofLPS-induced hypotension (shock) in pigs exposed to lethal doses ofendotoxin. A therapy such as electrical stimulation of the splenic nervethat is capable of modulating systemic levels of TNF has broadtherapeutic potential.

The data demonstrate that electrical stimulation of the splenic nerve issafe in that there is no adverse effect on cardiac physiology. This is adistinction from stimulation of the parasympathetics, specifically thevagus nerve. Stimulation of the vagus nerve often exerts negativeeffects on cardiac physiology.

Furthermore, stimulation of the splenic nerve was able to maintain theWBC count at a level of 75-85% of baseline. This brings the potentialfor therapy for a multitude of disorders that are characterized by adisturbance in WBC count. The effectiveness of stimulation ofsympathetic nerve such as the splenic nerve in this exemplary embodimentwhere stimulation therapy was applied acutely indicates that therapywhich includes stimulation of a sympathetic nervous system may also bebeneficial of therapy for chronic disorders.

1. A method for attenuating an immune response, comprising: identifyinga subject suffering from or at risk of a disease or disorder mediated bythe immune response; placing at least a portion of a lead comprising anelectrode within a tissue of the subject at a location in whichstimulation of the tissue by the electrode is capable of stimulating asympathetic neuron; applying a plurality of electrical stimulationpulses to the tissue via the electrode to stimulate the sympatheticneuron in an amount effective to attenuate the immune response; sensinga condition of the subject; and modifying a parameter of at least one ofthe plurality of electrical pulses based on the sensed condition,wherein the sympathetic neuron is a neuron of a splenic nerve, splenicneurovascular bundle, a periarterial splenic nerve, splenic peritoneum,splenic tissue, celiac plexus surrounding the celiac artery, a celiacganglion, an aorticorenal ganglion, a greater thoracic splanchnic nerve,a lesser thoracic splanchnic nerve, or a least thoracic splanchincnerve, wherein the disease or disorder is selected from the groupconsisting of allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease, hayfever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia,eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, septic abortion,epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema,rhinitis, cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, pelvic inflammatory disease,alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis, pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza,respiratory syncytial virus infection, herpes infection, HIV infection,disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis, malaria, filariasis,amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis, dermatomyositis, urticaria,warts, wheals, vasulitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease,meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, Guillane-Barre syndrome,neuritis, neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis,arthritides, arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease,gout, periodontal disease, synovitis, Sjogren's syndrome, myastheniagravis, thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus erythematosus,Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets'ssyndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease, Berger'sdisease, Type I diabetes, ankylosing spondylitis, Retier's syndrome,Graves disease, and Hodgkins disease, wherein sensing the conditioncomprises detecting a characteristic or symptom associated with adisorder or disease associated with the immune response or stimulationof the one or more neurons, wherein the characteristic or symptom isselected from the group consisting of (i) presence of an immunemediator, (ii) an amount of an immune mediator, (iii) an objectivesymptom of the subject, and (iv) presence or amount of transforminggrowth factor (TGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascularendothelial growth factor (VEGF), epithelial growth factor (EGF),fibroblast growth factor (FGF), intracellular adhesion molecule (I-CAM),subtypes thereof, nitric oxide, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκ-B), earlygrowth response protein (ERG-1), a mitogen-activated protein (MAP)kinase, toll-like receptors (TLRs), or a SMAD transcription factor, andwherein the immune mediator is selected from the group consisting of acytokine receptor, a chemokine, a chemokine receptor, a cell typeinvolved in an immune respone, a cell surface molecule involved in animmune response, an exogenous antigen, a cytokine.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising implanting a pulse generator within thesubject, wherein the pulse generator produces the electrical stimulationpulse and is electrically coupled to the electrode.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the electrode is placed in contact with the sympatheticneuron.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the sympathetic neuron is aneuron of the splenic nerve.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein thesympathetic neuron is a neuron of the splenic nerve.
 6. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the electrode is placed in contact with splenic tissue.7. The method of claim 1, wherein the immune response is an inflammatoryimmune response.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the immune mediatoris a cytokine receptor.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the cytokinereceptor is selected from the group consisting of TNF receptor, IL-1breceptor, and Toll-like receptors.
 10. The method of claim 9, whereinthe immune mediator is a chemokine.
 11. The method of claim 10, whereinthe chemokine is selected from the group consisting of 6Ckine andMIP3beta.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the immune mediator is achemokine receptor.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the chemokinereceptor is CCR7 receptor.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the immunemediator is a cell type involved in an immune response.
 15. The methodof claim 14, wherein the cell type is selected from the group consistingof Langerhans cell, dendritic cell, T lymphocyte, and B lymphocyte. 16.The method of claim 1, wherein the immune mediator is a cell surfacemolecule involved in an immune response.
 17. The method of claim 16,wherein the cell surface molecule is selected from the group consistingof major histocompatibility complex (MHC), CD80, CD86, CD28, CD40. 18.The method of claim 1, wherein the immune mediator is an exogenousantigen.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the exogenous antigen isselected from the group consisting of a bacterial antigen, a viralantigen, and a fungal antigen.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein theimmune mediator is a cytokine.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein thecytokine is a pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokine.
 22. Themethod of claim 21, wherein the cytokine is selected from the groupconsisting of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-1α,IL-1β, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, interferony, platelet-activating factor(PAF), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), high mobility groupbox protein 1 (HMGB-1), IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, and IL-17.
 23. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the condition is the presence or amount of transforminggrowth factor (TGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascularendothelial growth factor (VEGF), epithelial growth factor (EGF),fibroblast growth factor (FGF), intracellular adhesion molecule (I-CAM),subtypes thereof, or nitric oxide.
 24. The method of claim 1, wherein atleast one of the one or more conditions is the presence or amount ofnuclear factor kappa B (NFκ-B), early growth response protein (ERG-1), amitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, toll-like receptors (TLRs), or aSMAD transcription factor.
 25. A method for attenuating an immuneresponse, comprising: identifying a mammalian subject suffering from orat risk of a disease or disorder mediated by the immune response;placing at least a portion of a lead comprising an electrode within atissue of the mammalian subject at a location in which stimulation ofthe tissue by the electrode is capable of stimulating a sympatheticneuron; and applying a plurality of electrical stimulation pulses to thetissue via the electrode to stimulate the sympathetic neuron in anamount effective to attenuate the immune response; sensing a conditionof the subject; and modifying a parameter of at least one of theplurality of electrical pulses based on the sensed condition, whereinthe disease or disorder mediated by the immune response is selected fromthe group consisting of allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complexdisease, hay fever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia,hyperpyrexia, eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis, sarcoidosis,septic abortion, epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis,bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis, cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, pelvicinflammatory disease, alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis, pleurisy,sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection, herpesinfection, HIV infection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever,candidiasis, malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns,dermatitis, dermatomyositis, urticaria, warts, wheals, vasulitis,rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, meningitis, encephalitis,multiple sclerosis, Guillane-Barre syndrome, neuritis, neuralgia, spinalcord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides, arthralgias,osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout, periodontal disease,synovitis, Sjogren's syndrome, myasthenia gravis, thryoiditis, systemiclupus erythematosus, lupus erythematosus, Addison's disease, perniciousanemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets's syndrome, allograft rejection,graft-versus-host disease, Berger's disease, Type I diabetes, ankylosingspondylitis, Retier's syndrome, Graves disease, and Hodgkins disease,wherein sensing the condition comprises detecting a characteristic orsymptom associated with a disorder or disease associated with the immuneresponse or stimulation of the one or more neurons, wherein thecharacteristic or symptom is selected from the group consisting of (i)presence of an immune mediator, (ii) an amount of an immune mediator,(iii) an objective symptom of the subject, and (iv) presence or amountof transforming growth factor (TGF), platelet-derived growth factor(PDGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), epithelial growthfactor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), intracellular adhesionmolecule (I-CAM), subtypes thereof, nitric oxide, nuclear factor kappa B(NFκ-B), early growth response protein (ERG-1), a mitogen-activatedprotein (MAP) kinase, toll-like receptors (TLRs), or a SMADtranscription factor, and wherein the immune mediator is selected fromthe group consisting of a cytokine receptor, a chemokine, a chemokinereceptor, a cell type involved in an immune respone, a cell surfacemolecule involved in an immune response, an exogenous antigen, acytokine.
 26. The method of claim 25, further comprising implanting apulse generator within the subject, wherein the pulse generator producesthe electrical stimulation pulse and is electrically coupled to theelectrode.
 27. The method of claim 25, wherein placing the leadcomprises placing the electrode in contact with the sympathetic neuron.28. The method of claim 25, wherein the sympathetic neuron is a neuronselected from the group consisting of a projection from the brain to thespinal cord; an interneuron; a pre-ganglionic neuron; a ganglion; and apost-ganglionic neuron.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein thesympathetic neuron is a post-ganglionic neuron.
 30. The method of claim29, wherein the sympathetic neuron is a neuron of the splenic nerve. 31.The method of claim 30, wherein the sympathetic neuron is a neuron ofthe splenic nerve.
 32. The method of claim 25, wherein the sympatheticneuron is a neuron of the splenic nerve.
 33. The method of claim 25,wherein placing the lead comprises placing the electrode in contact withan end organ.
 34. The method of claim 33, wherein the end organ is alymph organ.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the lymph organ is aspleen.
 36. The method of claim 25, wherein placing the lead comprisesplacing the electrode in contact with tissue of an organ in a peritonealsac.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the organ in the peritoneal sacis selected from the group consisting of pancreas; stomach; andintestine.
 38. The method of claim 1, wherein applying the electricalstimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to a celiac plexussurrounding the celiac artery.
 39. The method of claim 1, whereinapplying the electrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulseto a splenic neurovascular bundle.
 40. The method of claim 1, whereinapplying the electrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulseto a periarterial splenic nerve.
 41. The method of claim 1, whereinapplying the electrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulseto a splenic peritoneum.
 42. The method of claim 1, wherein applying theelectrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to a celiacganglia.
 43. The method of claim 1, wherein applying the electricalstimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to an aorticorenalganglia.
 44. The method of claim 1, wherein applying the electricalstimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to a greater thoracicsplanchnic nerve.
 45. The method of claim 1, wherein applying theelectrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to a lesserthoracic splanchnic nerve.
 46. The method of claim 1, wherein applyingthe electrical stimulation pulse comprises applying the pulse to a leastthoracic splanchinc nerve.
 47. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is selected from the group consisting of allergy,anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease, hay fever, sepsis,septicemia, and endotoxic shock.
 48. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is cachexia.
 49. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is hyperpyrexia.
 50. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is eosinophilic granuloma.
 51. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is granulomatosis.
 52. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is sarcoidosis. 53.The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is septicabortion.
 54. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder isepididymitis.
 55. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease ordisorder is vaginitis.
 56. The method of claim 25, wherein the diseaseor disorder is prostatitis.
 57. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is urethritis.
 58. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is bronchitis.
 59. The method of claim 25,wherein the disease or disorder is emphysema.
 60. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is rhinitis.
 61. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is cystic fibrosis.
 62. The methodof claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is pneumonitis.
 63. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is pelvicinflammatory disease.
 64. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease ordisorder is alvealitis.
 65. The method of claim 25, wherein the diseaseor disorder is bronchiolitis.
 66. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is pharyngitis.
 67. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is pleurisy.
 68. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is sinusitis.
 69. The method of claim 25,wherein the disease or disorder is selected from the group consisting ofinfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection, herpes infection, HIVinfection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis, malaria,and filariasis, amebiasis.
 70. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is hydatid cysts, bums, dermatitis, dermatomyositis,urticaria, warts, and wheals.
 71. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is vasulitis.
 72. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is arthritides or rheumatoid arthritis.
 73. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is Alzheimer'sdisease.
 74. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder ismeningitis.
 75. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorderis encephalitis.
 76. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease ordisorder is multiple sclerosis.
 77. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is Guillane-Barre syndrome.
 78. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is neuritis.
 79. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is neuralgia.
 80. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is spinal cord injury.
 81. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is paralysis. 82.The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is uveitis. 83.The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is arthralgias.84. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder isosteomyelitis.
 85. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease ordisorder is fasciitis.
 86. The method of claim 25, wherein the diseaseor disorder is Paget's disease.
 87. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is gout.
 88. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is periodontal disease.
 89. The method of claim 25,wherein the disease or disorder is synovitis.
 90. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is Sjogren's syndrome.
 91. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is myastheniagravis.
 92. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder isthryoiditis.
 93. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorderis lupus erythematosus or systemic lupus erythematosus.
 94. The methodof claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is Addison's disease. 95.The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is perniciousanemia.
 96. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder isGoodpasture's syndrome.
 97. The method of claim 25, wherein the diseaseor disorder is Behcets's syndrome.
 98. The method of claim 25, whereinthe disease or disorder is allograft rejection or graft-versus-hostdisease.
 99. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder isBerger's disease.
 100. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease ordisorder is Type I diabetes.
 101. The method of claim 25, wherein thedisease or disorder is ankylosing spondylitis.
 102. The method of claim25, wherein the disease or disorder is Retier's syndrome.
 103. Themethod of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is Graves disease.104. The method of claim 25, wherein the disease or disorder is Hodgkinsdisease.
 105. A method for inhibiting release of a proinflammatorymediator from a mammalian cell, comprising: identifying a mammaliansubject suffering from, or at risk for, a disease or disorder mediatedby a proinflammatory mediator; and applying a plurality of electricalstimulation pulses to a sympathetic neuron of the subject in an amounteffective to inhibit the release of the proinflammatory mediator;sensing a condition of the subject; and modifying a parameter of atleast one of the plurality of electrical pulses based on the sensedcondition, wherein the disease or disorder mediated by a proinflammatorymediator is selected from the group consisting of allergy, anaphylacticshock, immune complex disease, hay fever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxicshock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis,sarcoidosis, septic abortion, epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitis,urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis, cystic fibrosis,pneumonitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, alvealitis, bronchiolitis,pharyngitis, pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virusinfection, herpes infection, HIV infection, disseminated bacteremia,Dengue fever, candidiasis, malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatidcysts, burns, dermatitis, dermatomyositis, urticaria, warts, wheals,vasulitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, meningitis,encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, Guillane-Barre syndrome, neuritis,neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides,arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout,periodontal disease, synovitis, Sjogren's syndrome, myasthenia gravis,thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus erythematosus,Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets'ssyndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease, Berger'sdisease, Type I diabetes, ankylosing spondylitis, Retier's syndrome,Graves disease, and Hodgkins disease, wherein sensing the conditioncomprises detecting a characteristic or symptom associated with adisorder or disease associated with the immune response or stimulationof the one or more neurons, wherein the characteristic or symptom isselected from the group consisting of (i) presence of an immunemediator, (ii) an amount of an immune mediator, (iii) an objectivesymptom of the subject, and presence or amount of transforming growthfactor (TGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascularendothelial growth factor (VEGF), epithelial growth factor (EGF),fibroblast growth factor (FGF), intracellular adhesion molecule (I-CAM),subtypes thereof, nitric oxide, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκ-B), earlygrowth response protein (ERG-1), a mitogen-activated protein (MAP)kinase, toll-like receptors (TLRs), or a SMAD transcription factor, andwherein the immune mediator is selected from the group consisting of acytokine receptor, a chemokine, a chemokine receptor, a cell typeinvolved in an immune respone, a cell surface molecule involved in animmune response, an exogenous antigen, a cytokine.
 106. A method ofinhibiting an inflammatory cytokine cascade in a patient, comprising:applying a plurality of electrical stimulation pulses to a sympatheticneuron in the patient in an amount sufficient to inhibit theinflammatory cytokine cascade, wherein the patient is diagnosed assuffering from, or at risk for, a disease or disorder mediated by theinflammatory cytokine cascade; sensing a condition of the subject; andmodifying a parameter of at least one of the plurality of electricalpulses based on the sensed condition, wherein the disease or disordermediated by a proinflammatory mediator is selected from the groupconsisting of allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease, hayfever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia,eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, septic abortion,epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema,rhinitis, cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, pelvic inflammatory disease,alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis, pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza,respiratory syncytial virus infection, herpes infection, HIV infection,disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis, malaria, filariasis,amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis, dermatomyositis, urticaria,warts, wheals, vasulitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease,meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, Guillane-Barre syndrome,neuritis, neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis,arthritides, arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease,gout, periodontal disease, synovitis, Sjogren's syndrome, myastheniagravis, thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus erythematosus,Addison's disease, pernicious anemia, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets'ssyndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease, Berger'sdisease, Type I diabetes, ankylosing spondylitis, Retier's syndrome,Graves disease, and Hodgkins, wherein sensing the condition comprisesdetecting a characteristic or symptom associated with a disorder ordisease associated with the immune response or stimulation of the one ormore neurons, wherein the characteristic or symptom is selected from thegroup consisting of (i) presence of an immune mediator, (ii) an amountof an immune mediator,m (iii) an objective symptom of the subject, and(iv) presence or amount of transforming growth factor (TGF),platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascular endothelial growthfactor (VEGF), epithelial growth factor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor(FGF), intracellular adhesion molecule (I-CAM), subtypes thereof, nitricoxide, nuclear factor kappa B (NFκ-B), early growth response protein(ERG-1), a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, toll-like receptors(TLRs), or a SMAD transcription factor, and wherein the immune mediatoris selected from the group consisting of a cytokine receptor, achemokine, a chemokine receptor, a cell type involved in an immunerespone, a cell surface molecule involved in an immune response, anexogenous antigen, a cytokine.